C++ How to Program: An Objects-Natural Approach. 11 Ed

Cover....1

Title Page....2

Copyright Page....5

Contents....8

Preface....24

Before You Begin....54

1 Intro to Computers and C++....60

1.1 Introduction....61

1.2 Hardware....63

1.2.1 Computer Organization....63

1.2.2 Moore’s Law, Multi-Core Processors and Concurrent Programming....66

1.3 Data Hierarchies....69

1.4 Machine Languages, Assembly Languages and High-level Languages....72

1.5 Operating Systems....73

1.6 C and C++....77

1.7 C++ Standard Library and Open-Source Libraries....78

1.8 Other Popular Programming Languages....80

1.9 Introduction to Object Orientation....82

1.10 Simplified View of a C++ Development Environment....84

1.11 Test-Driving a C++20 Application Various Ways....87

1.11.1 Compiling and Running on Windows with Visual Studio Community Edition....88

1.11.2 Compiling and Running with GNU C++ on Linux....91

1.11.3 Compiling and Running with G++ in the GCC Docker Container....93

1.11.4 Compiling and Running with Clang++ in a Docker Container....95

1.11.5 Compiling and Running with Xcode on macOS....96

1.12 Internet, World Wide Web, the Cloud and IoT....100

1.12.1 The Internet: A Network of Networks....100

1.12.2 The World Wide Web: Making the Internet User-Friendly....101

1.12.3 The Cloud....101

1.12.4 The Internet of Things (IoT)....101

1.12.5 Edge Computing....102

1.12.6 Mashups....102

1.13 Metaverse....103

1.13.1 Virtual Reality (VR)....103

1.13.2 Augmented Reality (AR)....104

1.13.3 Mixed Reality....105

1.13.4 Blockchain....105

1.13.5 Bitcoin and Cryptocurrency....105

1.13.6 Ethereum....106

1.13.7 Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs)....106

1.13.8 Web3....106

1.14 Software Development Technologies....107

1.15 How Big Is Big Data?....108

1.15.1 Big-Data Analytics....111

1.15.2 Data Science and Big Data are Making a Difference: Use Cases....112

1.16 Ai—at the Intersection of Computer Science and Data Science....113

1.16.1 Artificial Intelligence (AI)....113

1.16.2 Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)....114

1.16.3 Artificial Intelligence Milestones....114

1.16.4 Machine Learning....115

1.16.5 Deep Learning....115

1.16.6 Reinforcement Learning....116

1.16.7 Generative AI—ChaptGPT and Dall-E 2....116

1.17 Wrap-Up....118

2 Intro to C++20 Programming....124

2.1 Introduction....125

2.2 First Program in C++: Displaying a Line of Text....125

2.3 Modifying Our First C++ Program....129

2.4 Another C++ Program: Adding Integers....130

2.5 Memory Concepts....134

2.6 Arithmetic....135

2.7 Decision Making: Equality and Relational Operators....138

2.8 Objects Natural Case Study: Creating and Using Objects of Standard-library Class String....142

2.9 Wrap-Up....145

3 Algorithm Development and Control Statements: Part 1....152

3.1 Introduction....153

3.2 Algorithms....154

3.3 Pseudocode....154

3.4 Control Structures....155

3.4.1 Sequence Structure....156

3.4.2 Selection Statements....157

3.4.3 Iteration Statements....157

3.4.4 Summary of Control Statements....158

3.5 If Single-selection Statement....159

3.6 If...else Double-Selection Statement....160

3.6.1 Nested If...else Statements....161

3.6.2 Blocks....163

3.6.3 Conditional Operator (?:)....163

37 While Iteration Statement....164

3.8 Formulating Algorithms: Counter-Controlled Iteration....166

3.8.1 Pseudocode Algorithm with Counter-Controlled Iteration....166

3.8.2 Implementing Counter-Controlled Iteration....167

3.8.3 Integer Division and Truncation....169

3.8.4 Arithmetic Overflow....169

3.8.5 Input Validation....169

3.9 Formulating Algorithms: Sentinel-Controlled Iteration....170

3.9.1 Top-Down, Stepwise Refinement: the Top and First Refinement....171

3.9.2 Proceeding to the Second Refinement....171

3.9.3 Implementing Sentinel-Controlled Iteration....173

3.9.4 Mixed-Type Expressions and Implicit Type Promotions....175

3.9.5 Formatting Floating-Point Numbers....176

3.10 Formulating Algorithms: Nested Control Statements....177

3.10.1 Problem Statement....177

3.10.2 Top-Down, Stepwise Refinement: Pseudocode Representation of the Top....178

3.10.3 Top-Down, Stepwise Refinement: First Refinement....178

3.10.4 Top-Down, Stepwise Refinement: Second Refinement....179

3.10.5 Complete Second Refinement of the Pseudocode....179

3.10.6 Implementing the Program....180

3.10.7 Preventing Narrowing Conversions with Braced Initialization....182

3.11 Compound Assignment Operators....184

3.12 Increment and Decrement Operators....184

3.13 Fundamental Types Are Not Portable....187

3.14 Objects Natural Case Study: Super-Sized Integers....188

3.15 Wrap-Up....193

4 Control Statements, Part 2....204

4.1 Introduction....205

4.2 Essentials of Counter-Controlled Iteration....205

4.3 for Iteration Statement....207

4.4 Examples Using the for Statement....210

4.5 Application: Summing Even Integers; Introducing C++20 Text Formatting....211

4.6 Application: Compound-Interest Calculations; Introducing Format Specifiers....212

4.7 Do...while Iteration Statement....217

4.8 Switch Multiple-Selection Statement....218

4.9 Selection Statements with Initializers....224

4.10 Break and Continue Ststement....226

4.11 Logical Operators....228

4.11.1 Logical AND (&&) Operator....228

4.11.2 Logical OR (||) Operator....229

4.11.3 Short-Circuit Evaluation....229

4.11.4 Logical Negation (!) Operator....230

4.11.5 Example: Producing Logical-Operator Truth Tables....230

4.12 Confusing the Equality (==) and Assignment (=) Operators....232

4.13 Structured-Programming Summary....234

4.14 Objects Natural Case Study: Precise Monetary Calculations with the Boost Multiprecision Library....239

4.15 Wrap-Up....242

5 Functions and an Intro to Function Templates....248

5.1 Introduction....249

5.2 C++ Program Components....250

5.3 Math Library Functions....251

5.4 Function Definitions and Function Prototypes....253

5.5 Order of Evaluation of a Function’s Arguments....256

5.6 Function-Prototype and Argument-Coercion Notes....256

5.6.1 Function Signatures and Function Prototypes....257

5.6.2 Argument Coercion....257

5.6.3 Argument-Promotion Rules and Implicit Conversions....257

5.7 C++ Standard Library Headers....259

5.8 Case Study: Random-Number Generation....262

5.8.1 Rolling a Six-Sided Die....263

5.8.2 Rolling a Six-Sided Die 60,000,000 Times....264

5.8.3 Seeding the Random-Number Generator....266

5.8.4 Seeding the Random-Number Generator with random_device....267

5.9 Case Study: Game of Chance; Introducing Scoped enums....268

5.10 Function-call Stack and Activation Records....273

5.11 Inline Functions....276

5.12 References and Reference Parameters....278

5.13 Default Arguments....281

5.14 Function Overloading....283

5.15 Function Templates....286

5.16 Recursion....288

5.16.1 Factorials....289

5.16.2 Recursive Factorial Example....289

5.16.3 Recursive Fibonacci Series Example....293

5.16.4 Recursion vs. Iteration....296

5.17 Scope Rules....298

5.18 Unary Scope Resolution Operator....303

5.19 Lnfylun Lhqtomh Wjtz Qarcv: Qjwazkrplm xzz Xndmwwqhlz....304

5.20 Wrap-Up....307

6 Arrays, Vectors, Ranges and Functional-Style Programming....318

6.1 Introduction....319

6.2 Arrays....320

6.3 Declaring array....321

6.4 Initializing array Elements in a Loop....321

6.5 Initializing an array with an Initializer List....324

6.6 Range-Based for Statement....326

6.7 Calculating array Element Values and an Intro to constexpr....328

6.8 Totaling array Elements....330

6.9 Using a Primitive Bar Chart to Display array Data Graphically....331

6.10 Using array Elements as Counters....333

6.11 Using arrays to Summarize Survey Results....334

6.12 Sorting and Searching arrays....336

6.13 Multidimensional arrays....338

6.14 Intro to Functional-Style Programming....342

6.14.1 What vs. How....342

6.14.2 Passing Functions as Arguments to Other Functions: Introducing Lambda Expressions....343

6.14.3 Filter, Map and Reduce: Intro to C++20’s Ranges Library....345

6.15 Objects-Natural Case Study: C++ Standard Library Class Template Vector....349

6.16 Wrap-Up....356

7 (Downplaying) Pointers in Modern C++....368

7.1 Introduction....369

7.2 Pointer Variable Declarations and Initialization....371

7.2.1 Declaring Pointers....371

7.2.2 Initializing Pointers....371

7.2.3 Null Pointers....371

7.3 Pointer Operators....372

7.3.1 Address (&) Operator....372

7.3.2 Indirection (*) Operator....373

7.3.3 Using the Address (&) and Indirection (*) Operators....374

7.4 Pass-by-Reference with Pointers....375

7.5 Built-in Arrays....379

7.5.1 Declaring and Accessing a Built-in Array....379

7.5.2 Initializing Built-in Arrays....380

7.5.3 Passing Built-in Arrays to Functions....381

7.5.4 Declaring Built-in Array Parameters....381

7.5.5 Standard Library Functions Begin and End....382

7.5.6 Built-in Array Limitations....382

7.6 Using C++20 To_array to Convert a Built-in Array to a Std::array....383

7.7 Using Const with Pointers and the Data Pointed To....384

7.7.1 Using a Nonconstant Pointer to Nonconstant Data....385

7.7.2 Using a Nonconstant Pointer to Constant Data....385

7.7.3 Using a Constant Pointer to Nonconstant Data....386

7.7.4 Using a Constant Pointer to Constant Data....386

7.8 Sizeof Operator....388

7.9 Pointer Expressions and Pointer Arithmetic....390

7.9.1 Adding Integers to and Subtracting Integers from Pointers....391

7.9.2 Subtracting One Pointer from Another....392

7.9.3 Pointer Assignment....392

7.9.4 Cannot Dereference a void* Pointer....392

7.9.5 Comparing Pointers....393

7.10 Objects-Natural Case Study: C++20 spans—views of Contiguous Container Elements....393

7.11 A Brief Intro to Pointer-Based Strings....399

7.11.1 Command-Line Arguments....400

7.11.2 Revisiting C++20’s to_array Function....401

7.12 Looking Ahead to Other Pointer Topics....403

7.13 Wrap-Up....403

8 Strings, String_views, Text Files, CSV Files and Regex....416

8.1 Introduction....417

8.2 String Assignment and Concatenation....418

8.3 Comparing Strings....420

8.4 Substrings....422

8.5 Swapping strings....423

8.6 string Characteristics....424

8.7 Finding Substrings and Characters in a string....426

8.8 Replacing and Erasing Characters in a string....429

8.9 Inserting Characters into a string....431

8.10 Numeric Conversions....432

8.11 string_view....433

8.12 Files and Streams....436

8.13 Creating a Sequential File....437

8.14 Reading Data from a Sequential File....440

8.15 Reading and Writing Quoted Text....443

8.16 Updating Sequential Files....444

8.17 String Stream Processing....445

8.18 Raw String Literals....448

8.19 Objects-Natural Data Science Case Study: Reading and Analyzing a CSV File Containing Titanic Disaster Data....449

8.19.1 Using rapidcsv to Read the Contents of a CSV File....449

8.19.2 Reading and Analyzing the Titanic Disaster Dataset....451

8.20 Objects-Natural Data Science Case Study: Intro to Regular Expressions....458

8.20.1 Matching Complete Strings to Patterns....459

8.20.2 Replacing Substrings....464

8.20.3 Searching for Matches....464

8.21 Wrap-Up....467

9 Custom Classes....490

9.1 Introduction1....491

9.2 Test-Driving an Account Object....492

9.3 Account Class with a Data Member and Set and Get Member Functions....494

9.3.1 Class Definition....494

9.3.2 Access Specifiers private and public....496

9.4 Account Class: Custom Constructors....497

9.5 Software Engineering with Set and Get Member Functions....501

9.6 Account Class with a Balance....503

9.7 Time Class Case Study: Separating Interface from Implementation....506

9.7.1 Interface of a Class....507

9.7.2 Separating the Interface from the Implementation....507

9.7.3 Class Definition....508

9.7.4 Member Functions....509

9.7.5 Including the Class Header in the Source-Code File....509

9.7.6 Scope Resolution Operator (::)....510

9.7.7 Member Function setTime and Throwing Exceptions....510

9.7.8 Member Functions to24HourString and to12HourString....510

9.7.9 Implicitly Inlining Member Functions....511

9.7.10 Member Functions vs. Global Functions....511

9.7.11 Using Class Time....511

9.7.12 Object Size....513

9.8 Compilation and Linking Process....513

9.9 Class Scope and Accessing Class Members....514

9.10 Access Functions and Utility Functions....515

9.11 Time Class Case Study: Constructors with Default Arguments....516

9.11.1 Class Time....516

9.11.2 Overloaded Constructors and Delegating Constructors....521

9.12 Destructors....522

9.13 When Constructors and Destructors Are Called....523

9.14 Time Class Case Study: a Subtle Trap — Returning a Reference or a Pointer to a private Data Member....527

9.15 Default Assignment Operator....529

9.16 Const Objects and Const Member Functions....531

9.17 Composition: Objects as Members of Classes....533

9.18 Friend Functions and friend Classes....539

9.19 The this Pointer....541

9.19.1 Implicitly and Explicitly Using the This Pointer to Access an Object’s Data Members....541

9.19.2 Using the this Pointer to Enable Cascaded Function Calls....543

9.20 static Class Members: Classwide Data and Member Functions....546

9.21 Aggregates in C++20....551

9.21.1 Initializing an Aggregate....552

9.21.2 C++20 Designated Initializers....552

9.22 Concluding Our Objects Natural Case Study Track: Studying the Vigenère Secret-key Cipher Implementation....553

9.23 Wrap-Up....566

10 Oop: Inheritance and Runtime Polymorphism....588

10.1 Introduction....589

10.2 Base Classes and Derived Classes....591

10.2.1 Communitymember Class Hierarchy....592

10.2.2 Shape Class Hierarchy and public Inheritance....593

10.3 Relationship Between Base and Derived Classes....594

10.3.1 Creating and Using a Salariedemployee Class....594

10.3.2 Creating a SalariedEmployee– SalariedCommissionemployee Inheritance Hierarchy....597

10.4 Constructors and Destructors in Derived Classes....603

10.5 Intro to Runtime Polymorphism: Polymorphic Video Game....604

10.6 Relationships Among Objects in an Inheritance Hierarchy....605

10.6.1 Invoking Base-class Functions from Derived-class Objects....606

10.6.2 Aiming Derived-Class Pointers at Base-class Objects....608

10.6.3 Derived-Class Member-function Calls Via Base-class Pointers....609

10.7 Virtual Functions and Virtual Destructors....610

10.7.1 Why Virtual Functions Are Useful....610

10.7.2 Declaring virtual Functions....611

10.7.3 Invoking a virtual Function....612

10.7.4 virtual Functions in the Salariedemployee Hierarchy....612

10.7.5 virtual Destructors....616

10.7.6 final Member Functions and Classes....616

10.8 Abstract Classes and Pure virtual Functions....617

10.8.1 Pure virtual Functions....618

10.8.2 Device Drivers: Polymorphism in Operating Systems....618

10.9 Case Study: Payroll System Using Runtime Polymorphism....619

10.9.1 Creating Abstract Base Class Employee....620

10.9.2 Creating Concrete Derived Class SalariedEmployee....622

10.9.3 Creating Concrete Derived Class CommissionEmployee....624

10.9.4 Demonstrating Runtime Polymorphic Processing....626

10.10 Runtime Polymorphism, Virtual Functions and Dynamic Binding “under the Hood”....629

10.11 Program to an Interface, Not an Implementation19....632

10.11.1 Rethinking the Employee Hierarchy—CompensationModel Interface....634

10.11.2 Class Employee....634

10.11.3 Compensationmodel Implementations....636

10.11.4 Testing the New Hierarchy....638

10.11.5 Dependency Injection Design Benefits....639

10.12 Wrap-Up....640

11 Operator Overloading, Copy/Move Semantics and Smart Pointers....646

11.1 Introduction....647

11.2 Using the Overloaded Operators of Standard Library Class string....649

11.3 Operator Overloading Fundamentals....655

11.3.1 Operator Overloading Is Not Automatic....655

11.3.2 Operators That Cannot Be Overloaded....655

11.3.3 Operators That You Do Not Have to Overload....655

11.3.4 Rules and Restrictions on Operator Overloading....656

11.4 (Downplaying) Dynamic Memory Management with New and delete....657

11.5 Modern C++ Dynamic Memory Management: RAII and Smart Pointers....659

11.5.1 Smart Pointers....660

11.5.2 Demonstrating unique_ptr....660

11.5.3 unique_ptr Ownership....662

11.5.4 unique_ptr to a Built-In Array....662

11.6 Myarray Case Study: Crafting a Valuable Class with Operator Overloading....663

11.6.1 Special Member Functions....664

11.6.2 Using Class MyArray....665

11.6.3 MyArray Class Definition....674

11.6.4 Constructor That Specifies a MyArray's Size....676

11.6.5 Passing a Braced Initializer to a Constructor....677

11.6.6 Copy Constructor and Copy Assignment Operator....678

11.6.7 Move Constructor and Move Assignment Operator....681

11.6.8 Destructor....685

11.6.9 toString and size Functions....685

11.6.10 Overloading the Equality (==) and Inequality (!=) Operators....686

11.6.11 Overloading the Subscript ([]) Operator....688

11.6.12 Overloading the Unary bool Conversion Operator....689

11.6.13 Overloading the Preincrement Operator....690

11.6.14 Overloading the Postincrement Operator....691

11.6.15 Overloading the Addition Assignment Operator (+=)....692

11.6.16 Overloading the Binary Stream Extraction (>>) and Stream Insertion (<<) Operators....692

11.7 C++20 Three-Way Comparison Operator (<=>)....695

11.6 MyArray Case Study: Crafting a Valuable Class with Operator Overloading....663

11.7 C++20 Three-Way Comparison Operator (<=>)....695

11.8 Converting Between Types....699

11.9 explicit Constructors and Conversion Operators....700

11.10 Overloading the Function Call Operator ()....703

11.11 Wrap-Up....703

12 Exceptions and a Look Forward to Contracts....712

12.1 Introduction....713

12.2 Exception-Handling Flow of Control....717

12.2.1 Defining a Custom Exception Class....717

12.2.2 Demonstrating Exception Handling....718

12.2.3 Enclosing Code in a try Block....719

12.2.4 Defining a catch Handler for DivideByZeroExceptions....720

12.2.5 Termination Model of Exception Handling....721

12.2.6 Flow of Control When the User Enters a Nonzero Denominator....722

12.2.7 Flow of Control When the User Enters a Zero Denominator....722

12.3 Exception Safety Guarantees and noexcept....723

12.4 Rethrowing an Exception....724

12.5 Stack Unwinding and Uncaught Exceptions....726

12.6 When to Use Exception Handling....728

12.6.1 assert Macro....730

12.6.2 Failing Fast....730

12.7 Constructors, Destructors and Exception Handling....731

12.7.1 Throwing Exceptions from Constructors....731

12.7.2 Catching Exceptions in Constructors via Function try Blocks....732

12.7.3 Exceptions and Destructors: Revisiting noexcept (false)....734

12.8 Processing new Failures....735

12.8.1 new Throwing bad_alloc on Failure....736

12.8.2 new Returning nullptr on Failure....737

12.8.3 Handling new Failures Using Function set_new_handler....738

12.9 Standard Library Exception Hierarchy....739

12.10 C++’s Alternative to the finally Block: Resource Acquisition Is Initialization (RAII)....742

12.11 Some Libraries Support Both Exceptions and Error Codes....742

12.12 Logging....744

12.13 Looking Ahead to Contracts49....744

12.14 Wrap-Up....753

13 Data Structures: Standard Library Containers and Iterators....756

13.1 Introduction....757

13.2 a Brief Intro to Big O....759

13.3 A Brief Intro to Hash Tables....762

13.4 Introduction to Containers4....763

13.4.1 Common Nested Types in Sequence and Associative Containers....765

13.4.2 Common Container Member and Non-Member Functions....766

13.4.3 Requirements for Container Elements....769

13.5 Working with Iterators....769

13.5.1 Using istream_iterator for Input and ostream_iterator for Output....769

13.5.2 Iterator Categories....771

13.5.3 Container Support for Iterators....771

13.5.4 Predefined Iterator Type Names....772

13.5.5 Iterator Operators....772

13.6 A Brief Introduction to Algorithms....773

13.7 Sequence Containers....774

13.8 Vector Sequence Container....774

13.9 list Sequence Container....782

13.10 deque Sequence Container....787

13.11 Associative Containers....789

13.11.1 multiset Associative Container....789

13.11.2 set Associative Container....793

13.11.3 multimap Associative Container....795

13.11.4 map Associative Container....797

13.12 Container Adaptors....798

13.12.1 stack Adaptor....799

13.12.2 queue Adaptor....801

13.12.3 priority_queue Adaptor....802

13.13 bitset Near Container....803

13.14 Wrap-Up....805

14 Standard Library Algorithms and C++20 Ranges & Views....832

14.1 Introduction....833

14.2 Algorithm Requirements: C++20 Concepts....835

14.3 Lambdas and Algorithms....837

14.4 Algorithms....840

14.4.1 fill, fill_n, generate and generate_n....840

14.4.2 equal, mismatch and lexicographical_compare....842

14.4.3 remove, remove_if, remove_copy and remove_copy_if....845

14.4.4 replace, replace_if, replace_copy and replace_copy_if....849

14.4.5 Shuffling, Counting, and Minimum and Maximum Element Algorithms....851

14.4.6 Searching and Sorting Algorithms....855

14.4.7 Swap, iter_swap and swap_ranges....859

14.4.8 copy_backward, merge, unique, reverse, copy_if and copy_n....861

14.4.9 inplace_merge, unique_copy and reverse_copy....864

14.4.10 Set Operations....866

14.4.11 lower_bound, upper_bound and equal_range....869

14.4.12 min, max and minmax....871

14.4.13 Algorithms gcd, lcm, iota, reduce and partial_sum from Header ....872

14.4.14 Heapsort and Priority Queues....875

14.5 Function Objects (Functors)....880

14.6 Projections....884

14.7 C++20 Views and Functional-Style Programming....887

14.7.1 Range Adaptors....887

14.7.2 Working with Range Adaptors and Views....889

14.8 Intro to Parallel Algorithms....893

14.9 Standard Library Algorithm Summary....895

14.10 Future Ranges Enhancements....898

14.11 Wrap-Up....899

15 Templates, C++20 Concepts and Metaprogramming....904

15.1 Introduction....905

15.2 Custom Class Templates and Compile-Time Polymorphism....908

15.3 C++20 Function Template Enhancements....913

15.3.1 C++20 Abbreviated Function Templates....913

15.3.2 C++20 Templated Lambdas....915

15.4 C++20 Concepts: A First Look....915

15.4.1 Unconstrained Function Template muliply....916

15.4.2 Constrained Function Template with a C++20 Concepts Requires Clause....919

15.4.3 C++20 Predefined Concepts....921

15.5 Type Traits....923

15.6 C++20 Concepts: A Deeper Look....927

15.6.1 Creating a Custom Concept....927

15.6.2 Using a Concept....928

15.6.3 Using Concepts in Abbreviated Function Templates....929

15.6.4 Concept-based Overloading....930

15.6.5 requires Expressions....933

15.6.6 C++20 Exposition-Only Concepts....936

15.6.7 Techniques Before C++20 Concepts: SFINAE and Tag Dispatch....937

15.7 Testing C++20 Concepts with static_assert....938

15.8 Creating a Custom Algorithm....940

15.9 Creating a Custom Container and Iterators....942

15.9.1 Class Template ConstIterator....944

15.9.2 Class Template Iterator....947

15.9.3 Class Template MyArray....949

15.9.4 MyArray Deduction Guide for Braced Initialization....952

15.9.5 Using MyArray with Std::ranges Algorithms....953

15.10 Default Arguments for Template Type Parameters....957

15.11 Variable Templates....957

15.12 Variadic Templates and Fold Expressions....958

15.12.1 tuple Variadic Class Template....958

15.12.2 Variadic Function Templates and an Intro to Fold Expressions....961

15.12.3 Types of Fold Expressions....965

15.12.4 How Unary Fold Expressions Apply Their Operators....965

15.12.5 How Binary-Fold Expressions Apply Their Operators....968

15.12.6 Using the Comma Operator to Repeatedly Perform an Operation....969

15.12.7 Constraining Parameter Pack Elements to the Same Type....970

15.13 Template Metaprogramming....972

15.13.1 C++ Templates Are Turing Complete....973

15.13.2 Computing Values at Compile-Time....973

15.13.3 Conditional Compilation with Template Metaprogramming and constexpr if....978

15.13.4 Type Metafunctions....980

15.14 Wrap-Up....984

16 C++20 Modules: Large-Scale Development....992

16.1 Introduction....993

16.2 Compilation and Linking Before C++20....995

16.3 Advantages and Goals of Modules....996

16.4 Example: Transitioning to Modules—Header Units....997

16.5 Modules Can Reduce Translation Unit Sizes and Compilation Times....1000

16.6 Example: Creating and Using a Module....1001

16.6.1 module Declaration for a Module Interface Unit....1002

16.6.2 Exporting a Declaration....1004

16.6.3 Exporting a Group of Declarations....1004

16.6.4 Exporting a namespace....1004

16.6.5 Exporting a namespace Member....1005

16.6.6 Importing a Module to Use Its Exported Declarations....1005

16.6.7 Example: Attempting to Access Non-Exported Module Contents....1007

16.7 Global Module Fragment....1010

16.8 Separating Interface from Implementation....1010

16.8.1 Example: Module Implementation Units....1010

16.8.2 Example: Modularizing a Class....1013

16.8.3 :private Module Fragment....1017

16.9 Partitions....1017

16.9.1 Example: Module Interface Partition Units....1018

16.9.2 Module Implementation Partition Units....1021

16.9.3 Example: “Submodules” vs. Partitions....1021

16.10 Additional Modules Examples....1026

16.10.1 Example: Importing the C++ Standard Library as Modules....1026

16.10.2 Example: Cyclic Dependencies Are Not Allowed....1028

16.10.3 Example: imports Are Not Transitive....1029

16.10.4 Example: Visibility vs. Reachability....1030

16.11 Migrating Code to Modules....1031

16.12 Future of Modules and Modules Tooling....1032

16.13 Wrap-Up....1034

17 Parallel Algorithms and Concurrency: a High-Level View....1046

17.1 Introduction....1047

17.2 Standard Library Parallel Algorithms....1050

17.2.1 Example: Profiling Sequential and Parallel Sorting Algorithms....1050

17.2.2 When to Use Parallel Algorithms....1053

17.2.3 Execution Policies....1054

17.2.4 Example: Profiling Parallel and Vectorized Operations....1055

17.2.5 Additional Parallel Algorithm Notes....1057

17.3 Multithreaded Programming....1058

17.3.1 Thread States and the Thread Life Cycle....1058

17.3.2 Deadlock and Indefinite Postponement....1060

17.4 Launching Tasks with std::jthread....1062

17.4.1 Defining a Task to Perform in a Thread....1062

17.4.2 Executing a Task in a jthread....1064

17.4.3 How jthread Fixes Thread....1066

17.5 Producer–Consumer Relationship: a First Attempt....1067

17.6 Producer–Consumer: Synchronizing Access to Shared Mutable Data....1074

17.6.1 Class SynchronizedBuffer: Mutexes, Locks and Condition Variables....1076

17.6.2 Testing SynchronizedBuffer....1082

17.7 Producer–Consumer: Minimizing Waits with a Circular Buffer....1086

17.8 Readers and Writers....1095

17.9 Cooperatively Canceling jthreads....1096

17.10 Launching Tasks with std::async....1099

17.11 Thread-Safe, One-Time Initialization....1106

17.12 A Brief Introduction to Atomics....1107

17.13 Coordinating Threads with C++20 Latches and Barriers....1111

17.13.1 C++20 std::latch....1111

17.13.2 C++20 std::barrier....1114

17.14 C++20 Semaphores....1117

17.15 C++23: A Look to the Future of C++ Concurrency....1121

17.15.1 Parallel Ranges Algorithms....1121

17.15.2 Concurrent Containers....1121

17.15.3 Other Concurrency-Related Proposals....1122

17.16 Wrap-Up....1122

18 C++20 Coroutines....1132

18.1 Introduction....1133

18.2 Coroutine Support Libraries....1134

18.3 Installing the concurrencpp and generator Libraries....1136

18.4 Creating a Generator Coroutine with co_yield and the generator Library....1136

18.5 Launching Tasks with concurrencpp....1140

18.6 Creating a Coroutine with co_await and co_return....1144

18.7 Low-Level Coroutines Concepts....1152

18.8 Future Coroutines Enhancements....1155

18.9 Wrap-Up....1155

19 Stream I/O & C++20 Text Formatting....1160

19.1 Introduction....1161

19.2 Streams....1161

19.2.1 Classic Streams vs. Standard Streams....1162

19.2.2 iostream Library Headers....1162

19.2.3 Stream Input/Output Classes and Objects....1162

19.3 Stream Output....1163

19.3.1 Output of char* Variables....1164

19.3.2 Character Output Using Member Function put....1165

19.4 Stream Input....1165

19.4.1 get and getline Member Functions....1165

19.4.2 istream Member Functions peek, putback and ignore....1168

19.5 Unformatted I/O Using read, write and gcount....1169

19.6 Stream Manipulators....1170

19.6.1 Integral Stream Base: dec, oct, hex and setbase....1171

19.6.2 Floating-Point Precision (setprecision, precision)....1171

19.6.3 Field Width (width, setw)....1173

19.6.4 User-Defined Output Stream Manipulators....1174

19.6.5 Trailing Zeros and Decimal Points (showpoint)....1175

19.6.6 Alignment (left, Right and Internal)....1176

19.6.7 Padding (fill, Setfill)....1177

19.6.8 Integral Stream Base (dec, oct, hex, showbase)....1178

19.6.9 Floating-Point Numbers; Scientific and Fixed Notation (scientific, fixed)....1179

19.6.10 Uppercase/lowercase Control (uppercase)....1180

19.6.11 Specifying Boolean Format (boolalpha)....1181

19.6.12 Setting and Resetting the Format State via Member Function Flags....1182

19.7 Stream Error States....1183

19.8 Tying an Output Stream to an Input Stream....1186

19.9 C++20 Text Formatting....1186

19.9.1 C++20 std::format Presentation Types....1187

19.9.2 C++20 std::format Field Widths and Alignment....1189

19.9.3 C++20 std::format Numeric Formatting....1190

19.9.4 C++20 std::format Field Width and Precision Placeholders....1191

19.10 Wrap-Up....1192

20 Other Topics and a Look Toward the Future of C++....1200

20.1 Introduction....1201

20.2 shared_ptr and Weak_ptr Smart Pointers....1202

20.2.1 Reference Counted shared_ptr....1202

20.2.2 weak_ptr: shared_ptr Observer....1206

20.3 Runtime Polymorphism with std::variant and std::visit....1213

20.4 Protected Class Members: A Deeper Look....1219

20.5 Non-Virtual Interface (NVI) Idiom....1220

20.6 Inheriting Base-Class Constructors....1227

20.7 Multiple Inheritance....1228

20.7.1 Diamond Inheritance....1233

20.7.2 Eliminating Duplicate Subobjects with virtual Base-Class Inheritance....1235

20.8 public, protected and private Inheritance....1236

20.9 namespaces: A Deeper Look....1238

20.9.1 Defining namespaces....1239

20.9.2 Accessing namespace Members with Qualified Names....1240

20.9.3 using Directives Should Not Be Placed in Headers....1240

20.9.4 Nested namespaces....1240

20.9.5 Aliases for namespace Names....1240

20.10 Storage Classes and Storage Duration....1241

20.10.1 Storage Duration....1241

20.10.2 Local Variables and Automatic Storage Duration....1241

20.10.3 Static Storage Duration....1242

20.10.4 mutable Class Members....1243

20.11 Operator Keywords....1244

20.12 decltype Operator....1245

20.13 Trailing Return Types for Functions....1246

20.14 [[nodiscard]] Attribute....1246

20.15 Some Key C++23 Features....1248

20.16 Wrap-Up....1253

21 Computer Science Thinking: Searching, Sorting and Big O....1256

21.1 Introduction....1257

21.2 Efficiency of Algorithms: Big O....1258

21.2.1 O(1) Algorithms....1258

21.2.2 O(n) Algorithms....1258

21.2.3 O(n2) Algorithms....1259

21.3 Linear Search....1260

21.3.1 Implementation....1260

21.3.2 Efficiency of Linear Search....1261

21.4 Binary Search....1262

21.4.1 Implementation....1262

21.4.2 Efficiency of Binary Search....1266

21.5 Insertion Sort....1267

21.5.1 Implementation....1268

21.5.2 Efficiency of Insertion Sort....1269

21.6 Selection Sort....1269

21.6.1 Implementation....1270

21.6.2 Efficiency of Selection Sort....1272

21.7 Merge Sort (a Recursive Implementation)....1272

21.7.1 Implementation....1273

21.7.2 Efficiency of Merge Sort....1278

21.7.3 Summarizing Various Algorithms’ Big O Notations....1278

21.8 Wrap-Up....1280

Glossary....1284

Index....1299

C++ How to Program: An Objects-Natural Approach is a code-intensive, modular introduction to C++ programming. The Deitel live-code approach presents concepts using full working programs rather than code snippets so that you can immediately start to run programs as you read. Interesting, entertaining, and challenging examples, exercises, and projects help you see how what you're learning applies to real-world scenarios.

The 11th Edition presents new features of C++ 20 and even more hands-on application opportunities. Hundreds of new self-checks let you test your code and understanding of key concepts. New case studies and exercises focus on security, data science, ethics, and more.