Microelectronic Circuit Design. 6 Ed

Cover....1

 Title Page....4

 Copyright Page....5

 Dedications....6

 Brief Contents....7

 Contents....8

 Preface....21

 Chapter-by-Chapter Summary....24

 PART ONE SOLID-STATE ELECTRONICS AND DEVICES....30

 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS....32

 1.1 A Brief History of Electronics: From Vacuum Tubes to Giga-Scale Integration....33

 1.2 Classification of Electronic Signals....37

 1.2.1 Digital Signals....37

 1.2.2 Analog Signals....38

 1.2.3 A/D and D/A Converters—Bridging the Analog and Digital Domains....39

 1.3 Notational Conventions....41

 1.4 Problem-Solving Approach....42

 1.5 Important Concepts from Circuit Theory....44

 1.5.1 Voltage and Current Division....44

 1.5.2 Thévenin and Norton Circuit Representations....45

 1.6 Frequency Spectrum of Electronic Signals....50

 1.7 Amplifiers....51

 1.7.1 Ideal Operational Amplifiers....52

 1.7.2 Amplifier Frequency Response....55

 1.8 Element Variations in Circuit Design....55

 1.8.1 Mathematical Modeling of Tolerances....56

 1.8.2 Worst-Case Analysis....56

 1.8.3 Monte Carlo Analysis....58

 1.8.4 Temperature Coefficients....61

 1.9 Numeric Precision....63

 Summary....63

 Key Terms....64

 References....65

 Additional Reading....65

 Problems....66

 CHAPTER 2 SOLID-STATE ELECTRONICS....71

 2.1 Solid-State Electronic Materials....73

 2.2 Covalent Bond Model....74

 2.3 Drift Currents and Mobility in Semiconductors....77

 2.3.1 Drift Currents....77

 2.3.2 Mobility....78

 2.3.3 Velocity Saturation....78

 2.4 Resistivity of Intrinsic Silicon....79

 2.5 Impurities in Semiconductors....80

 2.5.1 Donor Impurities in Silicon....81

 2.5.2 Acceptor Impurities in Silicon....81

 2.6 Electron and Hole Concentrations in Doped Semiconductors....81

 2.6.1 n-Type Material (ND > NA)....82

 2.6.2 p-Type Material (NA > ND)....83

 2.7 Mobility and Resistivity in Doped Semiconductors....84

 2.8 Diffusion Currents....88

 2.9 Total Current....89

 2.10 Energy Band Model....90

 2.10.1 Electron—Hole Pair Generation in an Intrinsic Semiconductor....90

 2.10.2 Energy Band Model for a Doped Semiconductor....91

 2.10.3 Compensated Semiconductors....91

 2.11 Overview of Integrated Circuit Fabrication....93

 Summary....96

 Key Terms....97

 Additional Reading....98

 Problems....98

 CHAPTER 3 SOLID-STATE DIODES AND DIODE CIRCUITS....102

 3.1 The pn Junction Diode....103

 3.1.1 pn Junction Electrostatics....103

 3.1.2 Internal Diode Currents....107

 3.2 The i-v Characteristics of the Diode....108

 3.3 The Diode Equation: A Mathematical Model for the Diode....110

 3.4 Diode Characteristics Under Reverse, Zero, and Forward Bias....113

 3.4.1 Reverse Bias....113

 3.4.2 Zero Bias....113

 3.4.3 Forward Bias....114

 3.5 Diode Temperature Coefficient....116

 3.6 Diodes Under Reverse Bias....116

 3.6.1 Saturation Current in Real Diodes....117

 3.6.2 Reverse Breakdown....119

 3.6.3 Diode Model for the Breakdown Region....120

 3.7 pn Junction Capacitance....120

 3.7.1 Reverse Bias....120

 3.7.2 Forward Bias....121

 3.8 Schottky Barrier Diode....122

 3.9 SPICE Model and Layout for a Diode....122

 3.9.1 Diode Layout....124

 3.10 Diode Circuit Analysis....125

 3.10.1 Load-Line Analysis....126

 3.10.2 Analysis Using the Mathematical Model for the Diode....127

 3.10.3 The Ideal Diode Model....131

 3.10.4 Constant Voltage Drop Model....133

 3.10.5 Model Comparison and Discussion....134

 3.11 Multiple-Diode Circuits....135

 3.12 Analysis of Diodes Operating in the Breakdown Region....138

 3.12.1 Load-Line Analysis....138

 3.12.2 Analysis with the Piecewise Linear Model....138

 3.12.3 Voltage Regulation....139

 3.12.4 Analysis Including Zener Resistance....140

 3.12.5 Line and Load Regulation....141

 3.13 Half-Wave Rectifier Circuits....142

 3.13.1 Half-Wave Rectifier with Resistor Load....142

 3.13.2 Rectifier Filter Capacitor....143

 3.13.3 Half-Wave Rectifier with RC Load....144

 3.13.4 Ripple Voltage and Conduction Interval....145

 3.13.5 Diode Current....147

 3.13.6 Surge Current....148

 3.13.7 Peak-Inverse-Voltage (PIV) Rating....149

 3.13.8 Diode Power Dissipation....150

 3.13.9 Half-Wave Rectifier with Negative Output Voltage....150

 3.14 Full-Wave Rectifier Circuits....152

 3.14.1 Full-Wave Rectifier with Negative Output Voltage....153

 3.15 Full-Wave Bridge Rectification....153

 3.16 Rectifier Comparison and Design Tradeoffs....154

 3.17 Dynamic Switching Behavior of the Diode....158

 3.18 Photo Diodes, Solar Cells, and Light-Emitting Diodes....159

 3.18.1 Photo Diodes and Photodetectors....159

 3.18.2 Power Generation from Solar Cells....160

 3.18.3 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)....161

 Summary....162

 Key Terms....163

 Reference....164

 Additional Reading....164

 Problems....164

 CHAPTER 4 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS....175

 4.1 Physical Structure of the Bipolar Transistor....176

 4.2 The Transport Model for the npn Transistor....177

 4.2.1 Forward Characteristics....178

 4.2.2 Reverse Characteristics....180

 4.2.3 Complete Transport Model Equations for Arbitrary Bias Conditions....181

 4.3 The pnp Transistor....183

 4.4 Equivalent Circuit Representations for the Transport Models....185

 4.4.1 Another Look at the Forward-Active Region....186

 4.5 The i-v Characteristics of the Bipolar Transistor....186

 4.5.1 Output Characteristics....186

 4.5.2 Transfer Characteristics....187

 4.6 The Operating Regions of the Bipolar Transistor....188

 4.7 Transport Model Simplifications....189

 4.7.1 Simplified Model for the Cutoff Region....189

 4.7.2 Model Simplifications for the Forward-Active Region....191

 4.7.3 Diodes in Bipolar Integrated Circuits....197

 4.7.4 Simplified Model for the Reverse-Active Region....198

 4.7.5 Modeling Operation in the Saturation Region....201

 4.8 Nonideal Behavior of the Bipolar Transistor....204

 4.8.1 Junction Breakdown Voltages....204

 4.8.2 Minority-Carrier Transport in the Base Region....204

 4.8.3 Base Transit Time....205

 4.8.4 Diffusion Capacitance....207

 4.8.5 Frequency Dependence of the Common-Emitter Current Gain....208

 4.8.6 The Early Effect and Early Voltage....208

 4.8.7 Modeling the Early Effect....209

 4.8.8 Origin of the Early Effect....209

 4.9 Transconductance....210

 4.10 Bipolar Technology and SPICE Model....211

 4.10.1 Qualitative Description....211

 4.10.2 Spice Model Equations....212

 4.10.3 High-Performance Bipolar Transistors....214

 4.11 Practical Bias Circuits for the BJT....214

 4.11.1 Four-Resistor Bias Network....216

 4.11.2 Design Objectives for the Four-Resistor Bias Network....218

 4.11.3 Iterative Analysis of the Four-Resistor Bias Circuit....222

 4.12 Tolerances in Bias Circuits....223

 4.12.1 Worst-Case Analysis....223

 4.12.2 Monte Carlo Analysis....225

 Summary....228

 Key Terms....230

 References....231

 Additional Readings....231

 Problems....231

 CHAPTER 5 FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS....241

 5.1 Characteristics of the MOS Capacitor....243

 5.1.1 Accumulation Region....243

 5.1.2 Depletion Region....243

 5.1.3 Inversion Region....244

 5.2 The NMOS Transistor....245

 5.2.1 Qualitative i-v Behavior of the NMOS Transistor....246

 5.2.2 Triode Region Characteristics of the NMOS Transistor....247

 5.2.3 On Resistance....249

 5.2.4 Transconductance....251

 5.2.5 Saturation of the i-v Characteristics....251

 5.2.6 Mathematical Model in the Saturation (Pinch-Off) Region....253

 5.2.7 Transconductance in Saturation....254

 5.2.8 Transconductance Efficiency in Saturation....254

 5.2.9 Channel-Length Modulation....255

 5.2.10 Transfer Characteristics and Depletion-Mode MOSFETs....256

 5.2.11 Body Effect or Substrate Sensitivity....257

 5.3 PMOS Transistors....259

 5.4 MOSFET Circuit Symbols....261

 5.5 MOS Transistor Symmetry....262

 5.5.1 The One-Transistor Dram Cell....262

 5.5.2 Data Storage in the 1-T Cell....263

 5.5.3 Reading Data from the 1-T Cell....264

 5.6 CMOS Technology....267

 5.6.1 CMOS Voltage Transfer Characteristics....269

 5.7 CMOS Latchup....271

 5.8 Capacitances in MOS Transistors....273

 5.8.1 NMOS Transistor Capacitances in the Triode Region....273

 5.8.2 Capacitances in the Saturation Region....276

 5.8.3 Capacitances in Cutoff....276

 5.9 MOSFET Modeling in SPICE....276

 5.10 MOS Transistor Scaling....278

 5.10.1 Drain Current....279

 5.10.2 Gate Capacitance....279

 5.10.3 Circuit and Power Densities....279

 5.10.4 Power-Delay Product....280

 5.10.5 Cutoff Frequency....280

 5.10.6 High Field Limitations....281

 5.10.7 The Unified MOS Transistor Model, Including High Field Limitations....282

 5.10.8 Subthreshold Conduction....283

 5.11 All Region Modeling....284

 5.11.1 Interpolation Model....284

 5.11.2 Interpolation Model in the Saturation Region....284

 5.11.3 Transconductance Efficiency....285

 5.12 MOS Transistor Fabrication and Layout Design Rules....287

 5.12.1 Minimum Feature Size and Alignment Tolerance....287

 5.12.2 MOS Transistor Layout....288

 5.12.3 CMOS Inverter Layout....290

 5.13 Advanced CMOS Technologies....291

 5.14 Biasing the NMOS Field-Effect Transistor....294

 5.14.1 Why Do We Need Bias....294

 5.14.2 Four-Resistor Biasing....296

 5.14.3 Constant Gate-Source Voltage Bias....300

 5.14.4 Graphical Analysis for the Q-Point....300

 5.14.5 Analysis Including Body Effect....301

 5.14.6 Analysis Using the Unified Model....303

 5.14.7 NMOS Circuit Analysis Comparisons....305

 5.14.8 Two-Resistor Bias....305

 5.15 Biasing the PMOS Field-Effect Transistor....305

 5.16 Biasing the CMOS Inverter as an Amplifier....308

 5.17 The CMOS Transmission Gate....309

 5.18 The Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET....311

 5.18.1 The JFET with Bias Applied....312

 5.18.2 JFET Channel with Drain-Source Bias....312

 5.18.3 n-Channel JFET i-v Characteristics....314

 5.18.4 The p-Channel JFET....315

 5.18.5 Circuit Symbols and JFET Model Summary....315

 5.18.6 JFET Capacitances....316

 5.19 JFET Modeling in SPICE....317

 5.20 Biasing the JFET and Depletion- Mode MOSFET....318

 Summary....320

 Key Terms....322

 References....323

 Additional Readings....324

 Problems....325

 PART TWO ANALOG ELECTRONICS....340

 CHAPTER 6 INTRODUCTION TO AMPLIFIERS....342

 6.1 An Example of an Analog Electronic System....343

 6.2 Amplification....344

 6.2.1 Voltage Gain....345

 6.2.2 Current Gain....346

 6.2.3 Power Gain....346

 6.2.4 Location of the Amplifier....346

 6.2.5 The Decibel Scale....347

 6.3 Two-Port Models for Amplifiers....350

 6.3.1 The g-Parameters....350

 6.4 Mismatched Source and Load Resistances....354

 6.5 The Differential Amplifier....357

 6.5.1 Differential Amplifier Voltage Transfer Characteristic....358

 6.5.2 Voltage Gain....358

 6.6 Distortion in Amplifiers....360

 6.7 Differential Amplifier Model....361

 6.8 Amplifier Frequency Response....363

 6.8.1 Bode Plots....363

 6.8.2 The Low-Pass Amplifier....364

 6.8.3 The High-Pass Amplifier....367

 6.8.4 Band-Pass Amplifiers....370

 Summary....373

 Key Terms....374

 References....374

 Additional Reading....374

 Problems....374

 CHAPTER 7 THE TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER....381

 7.1 The Transistor as an Amplifier....382

 7.1.1 The BJT Amplifier....383

 7.1.2 The MOSFET Amplifier....384

 7.2 Coupling and Bypass Capacitors....385

 7.3 Circuit Analysis Using dc and ac Equivalent Circuits....387

 7.3.1 Menu for dc and ac Analysis....387

 7.4 Introduction to Small-Signal Modeling....391

 7.4.1 Graphical Interpretation of the Small- Signal Behavior of the Diode....391

 7.4.2 Small-Signal Modeling of the Diode....392

 7.5 Small-Signal Models for Bipolar Junction Transistors....394

 7.5.1 The Hybrid-Pi Model....396

 7.5.2 Graphical Interpretation of the Transconductance....397

 7.5.3 Small-Signal Current Gain....397

 7.5.4 The Intrinsic Voltage Gain of the BJT....398

 7.5.5 Equivalent Forms of the Small-Signal Model....399

 7.5.6 Simplified Hybrid-Pi Model....400

 7.5.7 Definition of a Small Signal for the Bipolar Transistor....400

 7.5.8 Small-Signal Model for the pnp Transistor....402

 7.5.9 ac Analysis versus Transient Analysis in SPICE....403

 7.6 The Common-Emitter (C-E) Amplifier....403

 7.6.1 Terminal Voltage Gain....403

 7.6.2 Input Resistance....405

 7.6.3 Signal Source Voltage Gain....405

 7.7 Important Limits and Model Simplifications....405

 7.7.1 A Design Guide for the Common-Emitter Amplifier....406

 7.7.2 Upper Bound on the Common-Emitter Gain....407

 7.7.3 Small-Signal Limit for the Common-Emitter Amplifier....407

 7.8 Small-Signal Models for Field-Effect Transistors....410

 7.8.1 Small-Signal Model for the MOSFET....410

 7.8.2 Intrinsic Voltage Gain of the MOSFET....412

 7.8.3 Definition of Small-Signal Operation for the MOSFET....413

 7.8.4 Body Effect in the Four-Terminal MOSFET....414

 7.8.5 Small-Signal Model for the PMOS Transistor....415

 7.8.6 Small-Signal Modeling for MOS Transistors in Weak Inversion....416

 7.8.7 Small-Signal Model for the Junction Field-Effect Transistor....416

 7.9 Summary and Comparison of the Small-Signal Models of the BJT and FET....417

 7.10 The Common-Source (C-S) Amplifier....420

 7.10.1 Common-Source Terminal Voltage Gain....421

 7.10.2 Signal Source Voltage Gain for the Common-Source Amplifier....421

 7.10.3 A Design Guide for the Common-Source Amplifier....422

 7.10.4 Small-Signal Limit for the Common- Source Amplifier....423

 7.10.5 Input Resistances of the Common- Emitter and Common-Source Amplifiers....425

 7.10.6 Common-Emitter and Common-Source Output Resistances....427

 7.10.7 Comparison of the Three Amplifier Examples....433

 7.11 Common-Emitter and Common-Source Amplifier Summary....434

 7.11.1 Guidelines for Neglecting the Transistor Output Resistance....434

 7.12 Amplifier Power and Signal Range....435

 7.12.1 Power Dissipation....435

 7.12.2 Signal Range....436

 Summary....439

 Key Terms....440

 Reference....440

 Problems....441

 CHAPTER 8 TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER BUILDING BLOCKS....453

 8.1 Amplifier Classification....454

 8.1.1 Signal Injection and Extraction—The BJT....454

 8.1.2 Signal Injection and Extraction—The FET....455

 8.1.3 Common-Emitter (C-E) and Common-Source (C-S) Amplifiers....456

 8.1.4 Common-Collector (C-C) and Common-Drain (C-D) Topologies....457

 8.1.5 Common-Base (C-B) and Common-Gate (C-G) Amplifiers....459

 8.1.6 Small-Signal Model Review....460

 8.2 Inverting Amplifiers—Common-Emitter and Common-Source Circuits....460

 8.2.1 The Common-Emitter (C-E) Amplifier....461

 8.2.2 Common-Emitter Example Comparison....473

 8.2.3 The Common-Source Amplifier....474

 8.2.4 Small-Signal Limit for the Common-Source Amplifier....477

 8.2.5 Common-Emitter and Common-Source Amplifier Characteristics....481

 8.2.6 C-E/C-S Amplifier Summary....482

 8.2.7 Equivalent Transistor Representation of the Generalized C-E/C-S Transistor....482

 8.3 Follower Circuits—Common-Collector and Common-Drain Amplifiers....483

 8.3.1 Terminal Voltage Gain....485

 8.3.2 Input Resistance....486

 8.3.3 Signal Source Voltage Gain....486

 8.3.4 Follower Signal Range....487

 8.3.5 Follower Output Resistance....487

 8.3.6 Current Gain....489

 8.3.7 C-C/C-D Amplifier Summary....489

 8.4 Noninverting Amplifiers—Common-Base and Common-Gate Circuits....493

 8.4.1 Terminal Voltage Gain and Input Resistance....495

 8.4.2 Signal Source Voltage Gain....496

 8.4.3 Input Signal Range....497

 8.4.4 Resistance at the Collector and Drain Terminals....497

 8.4.5 Current Gain....498

 8.4.6 Overall Input and Output Resistances for the Noninverting Amplifiers....498

 8.4.7 C-B/C-G Amplifier Summary....502

 8.5 Amplifier Prototype Review and Comparison....503

 8.5.1 The BJT Amplifiers....503

 8.5.2 The FET Amplifiers....505

 8.6 Common-Source Amplifiers Using MOS Transistor Loads....508

 8.6.1 Voltage Gain Estimate....508

 8.6.2 Detailed Analysis....509

 8.6.3 Alternative Loads....510

 8.6.4 Input and Output Resistances....511

 8.7 Coupling and Bypass Capacitor Design....514

 8.7.1 Common-Emitter and Common-Source Amplifiers....514

 8.7.2 Common-Collector and Common-Drain Amplifiers....518

 8.7.3 Common-Base and Common-Gate Amplifiers....521

 8.7.4 Setting Lower Cutoff Frequency fL....524

 8.8 Amplifier Design Examples....525

 8.8.1 Monte Carlo Evaluation of the Common- Base Amplifier Design....534

 8.9 Multistage ac-Coupled Amplifiers....539

 8.9.1 A Three-Stage ac-Coupled Amplifier....540

 8.9.2 Voltage Gain....542

 8.9.3 Input Resistance....543

 8.9.4 Signal Source Voltage Gain....543

 8.9.5 Output Resistance....544

 8.9.6 Current and Power Gain....545

 8.9.7 Input Signal Range....545

 8.9.8 Estimating the Lower Cutoff Frequency of the Multistage Amplifier....549

 8.10 Introduction to dc-Coupled Amplifiers....549

 8.10.1 A dc-Coupled Three-Stage Amplifier....551

 8.10.2 Two Transistor dc-Coupled Amplifiers....552

 Summary....554

 Key Terms....556

 Additional Reading....556

 Problems....556

 CHAPTER 9 AMPLIFIER FREQUENCY RESPONSE....573

 9.1 Amplifier Frequency Response....574

 9.1.1 Low-Frequency Response....575

 9.1.2 Estimating ωL in the Absence of a Dominant Pole....575

 9.1.3 High-Frequency Response....578

 9.1.4 Estimating ωH in the Absence of a Dominant Pole....578

 9.2 Direct Determination of the Low-Frequency Poles and Zeros—The Common-Source Amplifier....579

 9.3 Estimation of ωL Using the Short-Circuit Time-Constant Method....584

 9.3.1 Estimate of ωL for the Common-Emitter Amplifier....585

 9.3.2 Estimate of ωL for the Common-Source Amplifier....589

 9.3.3 Estimate of ωL for the Common-Base Amplifier....590

 9.3.4 Estimate of ωL for the Common-Gate Amplifier....591

 9.3.5 Estimate of ωL for the Common- Collector Amplifier....592

 9.3.6 Estimate of ωL for the Common-Drain Amplifier....592

 9.4 Transistor Models at High Frequencies....593

 9.4.1 Frequency-Dependent Hybrid-Pi Model for the Bipolar Transistor....593

 9.4.2 Modeling Cp and Cµ in SPICE....594

 9.4.3 Unity-Gain Frequency fT....594

 9.4.4 High-Frequency Model for the FET....597

 9.4.5 Modeling C G S and C G D in SPICE....598

 9.4.6 Channel Length Dependence of fT....598

 9.4.7 Limitations of the High-Frequency Models....600

 9.5 Base and Gate Resistances in the Small-Signal Models....600

 9.5.1 Effect of Base and Gate Resistances on Midband Amplifiers....601

 9.6 High-Frequency Common-Emitter and Common-Source Amplifier Analysis....602

 9.6.1 The Miller Effect....604

 9.6.2 Common-Emitter and Common- Source Amplifier High-Frequency Response....606

 9.6.3 Direct Analysis of the Common-Emitter Transfer Characteristic....608

 9.6.4 Poles of the Common-Emitter Amplifier....609

 9.6.5 Dominant Pole for the Common-Source Amplifier....612

 9.6.6 Estimation of . H Using the Open-Circuit Time-Constant Method....614

 9.6.7 Common-Source Amplifier with Source Degeneration Resistance....615

 9.6.8 Poles of the Common-Emitter with Emitter Degeneration Resistance....617

 9.7 Common-Base and Common-Gate Amplifier High-Frequency Response....620

 9.8 Common-Collector and Common-Drain Amplifier High-Frequency Response....622

 9.9 Single-Stage Amplifier High-Frequency Response Summary....625

 9.9.1 Amplifier Gain-Bandwidth (GBW) Limitations....625

 9.10 Frequency Response of Multistage Amplifiers....626

 9.10.1 Differential Amplifier....626

 9.10.2 The Common-Collector/ Common-Base Cascade....628

 9.10.3 High-Frequency Response of the Cascode Amplifier....629

 9.10.4 Cutoff Frequency for the Current Mirror....630

 9.10.5 Three-Stage Amplifier Example....631

 9.11 Introduction to Radio Frequency Circuits....639

 9.11.1 Radio Frequency Amplifiers....640

 9.11.2 The Shunt-Peaked Amplifier....640

 9.11.3 Single-Tuned Amplifier....642

 9.11.4 Use of a Tapped Inductor—the Auto Transformer....644

 9.11.5 Multiple Tuned Circuits—Synchronous and Stagger Tuning....646

 9.11.6 Common-Source Amplifier with Inductive Degeneration....647

 9.12 Mixers and Balanced Modulators....651

 9.12.1 Introduction to Mixer Operation....651

 9.12.2 A Single-Balanced Mixer....652

 9.12.3 The Differential Pair as a Single-Balanced Mixer....653

 9.12.4 A Double-Balanced Mixer....655

 9.12.5 The Jones Mixer—a Double-Balanced Mixer/Modulator....657

 Summary....661

 Key Terms....662

 References....662

 Problems....663

 PART THREE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS AND FEEDBACK....676

 CHAPTER 10 IDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS....678

 10.1 Ideal Differential and Operational Amplifiers....679

 10.1.1 Assumptions for Ideal Operational Amplifier Analysis....680

 10.2 Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal Operational Amplifiers....680

 10.2.1 The Inverting Amplifier....681

 10.2.2 The Transresistance Amplifier—a Current-to-Voltage Converter....684

 10.2.3 The Noninverting Amplifier....686

 10.2.4 The Unity-Gain Buffer, or Voltage Follower....688

 10.2.5 The Summing Amplifier....691

 10.2.6 The Difference Amplifier....693

 10.3 Frequency Dependent Feedback....695

 10.3.1 An Active Low-Pass Filter....696

 10.3.2 An Active High-Pass Filter....699

 10.3.3 The Integrator....700

 10.3.4 The Differentiator....704

 Summary....704

 Key Terms....705

 References....706

 Additional Reading....706

 Problems....706

 CHAPTER 11 NONIDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS AND FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER STABILITY....712

 11.1 Classic Feedback Systems....713

 11.1.1 Closed-Loop Gain Analysis....714

 11.1.2 Gain Error....714

 11.2 Analysis of Circuits Containing Nonideal Operational Amplifiers....715

 11.2.1 Finite Open-Loop Gain....715

 11.2.2 Nonzero Output Resistance....718

 11.2.3 Finite Input Resistance....722

 11.2.4 Summary of Nonideal Inverting and Noninverting Amplifiers....726

 11.3 Series and Shunt Feedback Circuits....727

 11.3.1 Feedback Amplifier Categories....727

 11.3.2 Voltage Amplifiers—Series-Shunt Feedback....728

 11.3.3 Transimpedance Amplifiers—Shunt-Shunt Feedback....728

 11.3.4 Current Amplifiers—Shunt-Series Feedback....728

 11.3.5 Transconductance Amplifiers—Series-Series Feedback....728

 11.4 Unified Approach to Feedback Amplifier Gain Calculations....728

 11.4.1 Closed-Loop Gain Analysis....729

 11.4.2 Resistance Calculations Using Blackman’s Theorem....729

 11.5 Series-Shunt Feedback—Voltage Amplifiers....729

 11.5.1 Closed-Loop Gain Calculation....730

 11.5.2 Input Resistance Calculations....730

 11.5.3 Output Resistance Calculations....731

 11.5.4 Series-Shunt Feedback Amplifier Summary....732

 11.6 Shunt-Shunt Feedback—Transresistance Amplifiers....736

 11.6.1 Closed-Loop Gain Calculation....736

 11.6.2 Input Resistance Calculations....737

 11.6.3 Output Resistance Calculations....737

 11.6.4 Shunt-Shunt Feedback Amplifier Summary....738

 11.7 Series-Series Feedback—Transconductance Amplifiers....741

 11.7.1 Closed-Loop Gain Calculation....742

 11.7.2 Input Resistance Calculation....742

 11.7.3 Output Resistance Calculation....743

 11.7.4 Series-Series Feedback Amplifier Summary....743

 11.8 Shunt-Series Feedback—Current Amplifiers....745

 11.8.1 Closed-Loop Gain Calculation....746

 11.8.2 Input Resistance Calculation....746

 11.8.3 Output Resistance Calculation....747

 11.8.4 Shunt-Series Feedback Amplifier Summary....747

 11.9 Finding the Loop Gain Using Successive Voltage and Current Injection....750

 11.9.1 Simplifications....753

 11.10 Distortion Reduction through the Use of Feedback....753

 11.11 DC Error Sources and Output Range Limitations....754

 11.11.1 Input-Offset Voltage....754

 11.11.2 Offset-Voltage Adjustment....756

 11.11.3 Input-Bias and Offset Currents....757

 11.11.4 Output Voltage and Current Limits....759

 11.12 Common-Mode Rejection and Input Resistance....762

 11.12.1 Finite Common-Mode Rejection Ratio....762

 11.12.2 Why Is CMRR Important....763

 11.12.3 Voltage-Follower Gain Error Due to CMRR....766

 11.12.4 Common-Mode Input Resistance....769

 11.12.5 An Alternate Interpretation of CMRR....770

 11.12.6 Power Supply Rejection Ratio....770

 11.13 Frequency Response and Bandwidth of Operational Amplifiers....772

 11.13.1 Frequency Response of the Noninverting Amplifier....774

 11.13.2 Inverting Amplifier Frequency Response....777

 11.13.3 Using Feedback to Control Frequency Response....779

 11.13.4 Large-Signal Limitations—Slew Rate and Full-Power Bandwidth....781

 11.13.5 Macro Model for Operational Amplifier Frequency Response....782

 11.13.6 Complete Op Amp Macro Models in SPICE....783

 11.13.7 Examples of Commercial General-Purpose Operational Amplifiers....783

 11.14 Stability of Feedback Amplifiers....784

 11.14.1 The Nyquist Plot....784

 11.14.2 First-Order Systems....785

 11.14.3 Second-Order Systems and Phase Margin....786

 11.14.4 Step Response and Phase Margin....787

 11.14.5 Third-Order Systems and Gain Margin....790

 11.14.6 Determining Stability from the Bode Plot....791

 Summary....795

 Key Terms....797

 References....798

 Problems....798

 CHAPTER 12 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER APPLICATIONS....810

 12.1 Cascaded Amplifiers....811

 12.1.1 Two-Port Representations....811

 12.1.2 Amplifier Terminology Review....813

 12.1.3 Frequency Response of Cascaded Amplifiers....816

 12.2 The Instrumentation Amplifier....824

 12.3 Active Filters....827

 12.3.1 Low-Pass Filter....827

 12.3.2 A High-Pass Filter with Gain....831

 12.3.3 Band-Pass Filter....833

 12.3.4 Sensitivity....835

 12.3.5 Magnitude and Frequency Scaling....836

 12.4 Switched-Capacitor Circuits....837

 12.4.1 A Switched-Capacitor Integrator....837

 12.4.2 Noninverting SC Integrator....839

 12.4.3 Switched-Capacitor Filters....841

 12.5 Digital-to-Analog Conversion....844

 12.5.1 D/A Converter Fundamentals....844

 12.5.2 D/A Converter Errors....845

 12.5.3 Digital-to-Analog Converter Circuits....847

 12.6 Analog-to-Digital Conversion....851

 12.6.1 A/D Converter Fundamentals....852

 12.6.2 Analog-to-Digital Converter Errors....853

 12.6.3 Basic A/D Conversion Techniques....854

 12.7 Oscillators....865

 12.7.1 The Barkhausen Criteria for Oscillation....865

 12.7.2 Oscillators Employing Frequency-Selective RC Networks....866

 12.8 Nonlinear Circuit Applications....870

 12.8.1 A Precision Half-Wave Rectifier....870

 12.8.2 Nonsaturating Precision-Rectifier Circuit....871

 12.9 Circuits Using Positive Feedback....873

 12.9.1 The Comparator and Schmitt Trigger....873

 12.9.2 The Astable Multivibrator....875

 12.9.3 The Monostable Multivibrator or One Shot....876

 Summary....880

 Key Terms....882

 Additional Reading....883

 Problems....883

 CHAPTER 13 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS AND OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER DESIGN....895

 13.1 Differential Amplifiers....896

 13.1.1 Bipolar and MOS Differential Amplifiers....896

 13.1.2 dc Analysis of the Bipolar Differential Amplifier....897

 13.1.3 Transfer Characteristic for the Bipolar Differential Amplifier....899

 13.1.4 ac Analysis of the Bipolar Differential Amplifier....900

 13.1.5 Differential-Mode Gain and Input and Output Resistances....901

 13.1.6 Common-Mode Gain and Input Resistance....903

 13.1.7 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR....905

 13.1.8 Analysis Using Differential- and Common-Mode Half-Circuits....906

 13.1.9 Biasing with Electronic Current Sources....909

 13.1.10 Modeling the Electronic Current Source in SPICE....910

 13.1.11 dc Analysis of the MOSFET Differential Amplifier....910

 13.1.12 Differential-Mode Input Signals....913

 13.1.13 Small-Signal Transfer Characteristic for the MOS Differential Amplifier....914

 13.1.14 Common-Mode Input Signals....914

 13.1.15 Model for Differential Pairs....915

 13.2 Evolution to Basic Operational Amplifiers....919

 13.2.1 A Two-Stage Prototype for an Operational Amplifier....920

 13.2.2 Improving the Op Amp Voltage Gain....925

 13.2.3 Darlington Pairs....926

 13.2.4 Output Resistance Reduction....927

 13.2.5 A CMOS Operational Amplifier Prototype....931

 13.2.6 BiCMOS Amplifiers....933

 13.2.7 All Transistor Implementations....933

 13.3 Output Stages....935

 13.3.1 The Source Follower—a Class-A Output Stage....935

 13.3.2 Efficiency of Class-A Amplifiers....936

 13.3.3 Class-B Push-Pull Output Stage....937

 13.3.4 Class-AB Amplifiers....939

 13.3.5 Class-AB Output Stages for Operational Amplifiers....940

 13.3.6 Short-Circuit Protection....940

 13.3.7 Transformer Coupling....942

 13.4 Electronic Current Sources....945

 13.4.1 Single-Transistor Current Sources....946

 13.4.2 Figure of Merit for Current Sources....946

 13.4.3 Higher Output Resistance Sources....947

 13.4.4 Current Source Design Examples....948

 Summary....956

 Key Terms....957

 References....957

 Additional Reading....958

 Problems....958

 CHAPTER 14 ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUIT DESIGN TECHNIQUES....975

 14.1 Circuit Element Matching....976

 14.2 Current Mirrors....977

 14.2.1 dc Analysis of the MOS Transistor Current Mirror....978

 14.2.2 Changing the MOS Mirror Ratio....980

 14.2.3 dc Analysis of the Bipolar Transistor Current Mirror....981

 14.2.4 Altering the BJT Current Mirror Ratio....983

 14.2.5 Multiple Current Sources....984

 14.2.6 Buffered Current Mirror....985

 14.2.7 Output Resistance of the Current Mirrors....986

 14.2.8 Two-Port Model for the Current Mirror....987

 14.2.9 The Widlar Current Source....989

 14.2.10 The MOS Version of the Widlar Source....992

 14.2.11 MOS Widlar Source in Weak Inversion....992

 14.3 High-Output-Resistance Current Mirrors....993

 14.3.1 The Wilson Current Sources....994

 14.3.2 Output Resistance of the Wilson Source....995

 14.3.3 Cascode Current Sources....996

 14.3.4 Output Resistance of the Cascode Sources....997

 14.3.5 Regulated Cascode Current Source....998

 14.3.6 Current Mirror Summary....999

 14.4 Reference Current Generation....1002

 14.5 Supply-Independent Biasing....1003

 14.5.1 A V BE -Based Reference....1003

 14.5.2 The Widlar Source....1003

 14.5.3 Power-Supply-Independent Bias Cell....1004

 14.5.4 A Supply-Independent MOS Reference Cell....1005

 14.6 The Bandgap Reference....1007

 14.7 The Current Mirror as an Active Load....1011

 14.7.1 CMOS Differential Amplifier with Active Load....1011

 14.7.2 Bipolar Differential Amplifier with Active Load....1018

 14.8 Active Loads in Operational Amplifiers....1022

 14.8.1 CMOS Op-Amp Voltage Gain....1022

 14.8.2 dc Design Considerations....1023

 14.8.3 Bipolar Operational Amplifiers....1025

 14.8.4 Input Stage Breakdown....1026

 14.9 The µA741 Operational Amplifier....1027

 14.9.1 Overall Circuit Operation....1027

 14.9.2 Bias Circuitry....1028

 14.9.3 dc Analysis of the 741 Input Stage....1029

 14.9.4 ac Analysis of the 741 Input Stage....1032

 14.9.5 Voltage Gain of the Complete Amplifier....1033

 14.9.6 The 741 Output Stage....1037

 14.9.7 Output Resistance....1039

 14.9.8 Short-Circuit Protection....1039

 14.9.9 Summary of the µA741 Operational Amplifier Characteristics....1039

 14.10 The Gilbert Analog Multiplier....1040

 Summary....1042

 Key Terms....1043

 References....1044

 Additional Readings....1044

 Problems....1044

 CHAPTER 15 TRANSISTOR FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND OSCILLATORS....1059

 15.1 Basic Feedback System Review....1060

 15.1.1 Closed-Loop Gain....1060

 15.1.2 Closed-Loop Impedances....1061

 15.1.3 Feedback Effects....1061

 15.2 Feedback Amplifier Analysis at Midband....1063

 15.2.1 Closed-Loop Gain....1063

 15.2.2 Input Resistance....1064

 15.2.3 Output Resistance....1064

 15.2.4 Offset Voltage Calculation....1065

 15.3 Feedback Amplifier Circuit Examples....1066

 15.3.1 Series-Shunt Feedback—Voltage Amplifiers....1066

 15.3.2 Differential Input Series-Shunt Voltage Amplifier....1071

 15.3.3 Shunt-Shunt Feedback—Transresistance Amplifiers....1074

 15.3.4 Series-Series Feedback—Transconductance Amplifiers....1080

 15.3.5 Shunt-Series Feedback—Current Amplifiers....1083

 15.4 Review of Feedback Amplifier Stability....1086

 15.4.1 Closed-Loop Response of the Uncompensated Amplifier....1087

 15.4.2 Phase Margin....1088

 15.4.3 Higher-Order Effects....1092

 15.4.4 Response of the Compensated Amplifier....1093

 15.4.5 Small-Signal Limitations....1095

 15.5 Single-Pole Operational Amplifier Compensation....1095

 15.5.1 Three-Stage Op-Amp Analysis....1096

 15.5.2 Transmission Zeros in FET Op Amps....1098

 15.5.3 Bipolar Amplifier Compensation....1099

 15.5.4 Slew Rate of the Operational Amplifier....1100

 15.5.5 Relationships between Slew Rate and Gain-Bandwidth Product....1101

 15.6 High-Frequency Oscillators....1110

 15.6.1 The Colpitts Oscillator....1111

 15.6.2 The Hartley Oscillator....1112

 15.6.3 Amplitude Stabilization In LC Oscillators....1113

 15.6.4 Negative Resistance in Oscillators....1113

 15.6.5 Negative Gm Oscillator....1114

 15.6.6 Crystal Oscillators....1116

 15.6.7 Ring Oscillators....1119

 15.6.8 Positive Feedback and Latchup....1120

 Summary....1123

 Key Terms....1125

 Additional Readings....1125

 Problems....1125

 APPENDICES....1138

 A Standard Discrete Component Values....1138

 B Solid-State Device Models and SPICE Simulation Parameters....1141

 C Two-Port Review....1146

 D Physical Constants and Transistor Model Summary....1149

 Index....1152

Microelectronic Circuit Design presents a balanced coverage of analog and digital circuits. Students will develop a comprehensive understanding of the basic techniques of modern electronic circuit design, analog and digital, discrete and integrated. A broad spectrum of topics is included, and material can easily be selected to satisfy either a two-semester or three quarter sequence in electronics.